Final

Emigration of the Bukharan Jews

By: David Chramiec (996690479)

Introduction/ History

The Bukharan Jews are a branch of the Jewish people originating from Central Asia. For more than two thousand years they have known this region as their home and they have been a minority here the entire time. Some myths suggest elaborate accounts for their presence here, one being that they are supposedly the descendants of Israelites who did not find their way back home from Babylonian captivity. The Bukharan Jews are essentially Iranian in terms of genetics, language, and culture. Their closest relatives in these lands would be the Tajiks whom they share almost all aspects of life with, except of course religion. The language they speak is Bukhori which is simply the Tajik branch of the Persian language reinforced with certain Hebrew linguistic traces. The two languages are only really different in the alphabets they use; common Tajik uses the standard Farsi script while Bukhori uses the Hebrew alphabet. Culturally these two are similarly consistent. You can examine their fashion, their cuisine, their habits, and their hobbies; all are identical.[1]

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Bukharan_Jews_(before_1899).jpg

(picture of Bukharan Jews before 1899)

Ideally it would seem that these Jews fit all the characteristics of their region and should therefore have lived in peace with their fellow neighbours. However, we know this not to be the case as the Bukharan Jews have by no means harmoniously co-existed with their fellow man. The Jews get their name from the city of Bukhara in modern day Uzbekistan. Several hundred years ago Bukhara was a self-governing Emirate and was also known to possibly have the highest proportion of Jews in the entire Central Asian landscape. Therefore, scholars assigned to these Jews the title of Bukharan, and have been using it ever since. Jewish persecution in Bukhara stems back further than Emirati times and really is first properly examined in the 16^th century. During this period Bukhara is known as the Khanate of Bukhara and is ruled by Uzbek nomads. This is the period in time where Bukhara is occupied and dominated by a truly experienced regime. The Uzbeks warded off Mongol and Arab forces, also establishing Islamic fundamentalism in the state.[2]

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Prokudin-Gorskii-19.jpg

(Mohammed Alim Khan (1880–1944), the last Emir of Bukhara.)

Under this Muslim society Jews were not treated equally with the Muslim majority. All Jews were treated as dhimmis (people of the book), signifying their religious kin, and forced to follow the obligations which followed this title. They had to live in their own Jewish-only town settlements, they were required to pay a jizya tax over a recurring pattern of time, and they were even forced to wear on their clothes markers signifying their religious background. Even the Jews who converted to Islam were give a demeaning name, anusim, and ridiculed in society. Well into the future life like this continued and the Jews seemed to be permanently stricken with this curse of theirs, at times it even escalated into violence and murder. In 1917 Jewish Bukharan life dramatically changed due to the beginning of Soviet influence in the region. Bukhara was incorporated into a Socialist Republic and the Jews were no longer identified by the government by their ethnicity. The U.S.S.R. began labelling individuals by the Republic they live in instead of the ethnicity they occupy; this significantly improved the Jewish living standard.[3]

http://www1.yadvashem.org/remembrance/yom_hazicaron/images/4789_.jpg

(picture of mandatory Jewish badges)

Finally we have a time where Jews can live wherever they choose, work for the government, attend any school, etc. More synagogues were established and Russian was introduced as the lingua franca of the nation, Jews were becoming totally assimilated. Unfortunately, persecution was not altogether void. The Jews held onto their common culture and did not want to allow it to wash away. They continued to live obvious Jewish lives and this did not associate well with the general xenophobia the rest of the nation held pertaining to them. Violence, abuse, and general hostility continued to occur to them until the collapse of the Soviet Union. It is for these reasons Jewish emigration out of Bukhara and Central Asia started to develop when it did, as we will see in the next section. Presently speaking Jewish life is dead in Central Asia; almost all of the Jews have emigrated. It is really a shame that a land with so much Jewish antiquity only has approximately a hundred Bukharan Jews left. The global population of Bukharan Jews is a couple hundred thousand.

http://moadoph.gov.au/exhibitions/online/petrov/images/pictures/PTV-i1424_l.jpg

(picture of Soviet propaganda)

Emigration to Israel

The first documented emigrations of Bukharan Jews to Israel transpired in 1862. Israel was of course not known as Israel during this time but the area nonetheless was the leading preference for Bukharan Jews, nay all Jews, to emigrate to. The ‘Holy Land’ has always been viewed in the hearts of Jews as a piece of their common culture; with the announcement of a Jewish state in the near future, it is sensible to think the state would experience a surge in immigration. Most of these Jews settled in the Jerusalem however many more made the cities of Haifa, Jaffa, Safed, and Tiberias their home. Immediately following their arrival, the Bukharan Jewish community began to significantly add to their cities.[4] Men like Alishoye Yahudo financed the construction of numerous synagogues, community centres, and nursing homes throughout Israel as a means of paying alms to their new homeland. The Bukharan quarters of Israel continued to expand and urbanize in this sense, becoming ever so friendly and appreciative towards new migrants.[5]

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=62WJW4-Wfn0

(part 1/3 of a video celebrating Bukharan Jews in Jerusalem)

As we fast track in time to the 1930s we can see tangible evidence of this fact through examples such as the Tel-Aviv Bet Olim Absorption Center, built by one Morduhai Fuzailov.[6] Facilities like these were constructed for the purpose of increasing Bukharan immigration. Jews would stay there rent-free and would be provided with food and personal necessities. Temporary shelters controlled and monitored the constant influx of Bukharan Jews. Another significant name was Mamon Hudoidatov. This man greatly improved Bukharan life in Israel by commercializing the agriculture sector. He started and developed his own farm and taught locals his methods on efficiently maximizing crop and livestock production.[7] This may not seem substantially noteworthy but it opened up a whole new mindset for the Bukharan Jewish community. Over the next ten or so years Bukharan Jews all around the nation began operating vocational schools for various trades. Alongside agriculture, schools for training in mechanics, jewellery design, and business began to surface and flourish. In only a few decades the original poor Bukharan community of Israel had transformed into an educated and successful society with a bright future ahead of them.

Israel’s current modern day Bukharan population has truly evolved and blossomed. Of the worlds couple hundred thousand Bukharan Jews; about half of them permanently reside in Israel. Many of them are wealthy businessmen, doctors, lawyers, etc. They have even played a significant role in the nation’s politics through government affiliated occupations. One of the most famous Israeli Bukharan Jews currently alive falls under this category. Robert Ilatov is a Bukharan Jew originally from Andijan, a city in the present Uzbekistan. He is highly regarded as a respected politician and Knesset member representing the Yisrael Beiteinu party.[8] Overall, the Bukharan community of Israel is the most affluent in the world. Through hard work and care they have successfully transferred their identity from Central Asia over to the Levant. Nowadays numerous community centres, museums, and non-profit organizations offer Bukharan awareness for all who are interested.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Robert_Ilatov_002.jpg

(picture of Robert Ilatov)

Emigration to the U.S.A.

Israel may be the leading destination for Bukharan culture but the United States of America are not far behind. If half of the world’s Bukharan population lives in Israel then it is fair to state that practically 80% of the remaining half resides in the U.S. Bukharan immigrants first began to enter the U.S.A. in between the 1940s and 1950s. By the early 1970s the total number of Bukharan Jews in the country was well into the thousands. Contrary to Israeli patterns, these American newcomers were not all coming from Bukhara and Central Asia.[9] Quite a few were of course, but the majority of them were successful Jews coming from Israel and Europe, who had already left the Silk Road many years ago. Seeing as how the U.S.A. was welcoming such educated migrants, what sort of prospect was this for them? Well the Bukharan population in America may never have reached the size and initiative of its Israeli counter-part, but it undoubtedly made up for it in wealth.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FaXctiuRhVo

(part 1/3 of a video celebrating Bukharan Jews in NYC)

Bukharan Jews can be found in all 50 states but the most concentrated area is in New York City. The borough of Queens, especially the neighbourhoods of Forest Hills and Rego Park, is the most popular destination. These Jews have become highly Americanized and are hence not as religious as their Israeli brothers. Be that as it may, their secular tendencies do not subtract from their cultural appreciation. These Jews take great pride in their traditions and have systematically proved this with their actions, both past and present. Through public and private donations, these Bukharan Jews have elegantly contributed to a friendlier global environment. Certain organizations such as Bukharan Jews in the USA have as a whole supported their Central Asian roots by donating to fight Islamic Terrorist movements in the region. On the subject of Bukharan Jews in the USA, their Chief Rabbi Itzhak Yehoshua is a very prominent American Bukharan Jew.[10]

http://cache.daylife.com/imageserve/029xcVb4bQfmS/610x.jpg

(picture of Rabbi Itzhak Yehoshua, on the right)

Overall the American Bukharan community is highly influential for all Bukharan Jews worldwide. Compared to the Israeli community it is presently growing at a faster pace and proving to be just as responsible as its partner in educating the masses. A significant percentage of the educational material published both physically and virtually is done so in the United States of America. Israel may still be the persuading entity in global Bukharan politics, but the U.S.A. is hastily catching up.

Other Emigrations/ Conclusion

A small yet visible percentage of Bukharan Jews did not emigrate to either Israel or the United States of America. Two different reasons govern the decisions they made: not being able to, and not wanting to. The late 19^th and early 20^th centuries were not ideal for international travel. Re-locating numerous family members half way around the world was extremely expensive for some. Even if a few trips could be afforded many families did not want to split so they would therefore choose to travel together. Those who could not afford to escape to Israel or the U.S.A. generally did not travel very far. Europe was also out of the question for them seeing as how European nations such as France and the U.K. at the time where not as open to immigrants like the U.S. and Israel were. These less fortunate Jews had to desperately travel to and settle in nearby states such as Afghanistan and India. These voyages were negative in two ways for the most part. For one, the trips themselves were unsanitary causing many travellers to fall sick and even lose their lives. Secondly, these new nations themselves did not offer much safer environments than the ones they had escaped.

Those Jews who were successful businessmen or merchants who could afford to re-locate in Europe where better off and did meet an improvement in their standard of living. Due to their connections and wealth they would be able to acquire foreign travel documents and passports with greater ease. The only problem these Bukharan Jews really faced was their choice in when they emigrated. If they did so before the second world war than they would be in high risk of continued anti-Semitic persecution, as opposed to doing it after the war and improving their quality of life. Though nowhere near the size of Israel or the U.S., the Bukharan populations living in Europe have still produced some influential people. The current First Lady of Iceland, Dorrit Moussaieff, is an example of this.[11]

http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2009/07/02/article-1197132-05932A63000005DC-298_468x286.jpg

(Dorrit Moussaieff, First Lady of Iceland)

Central Asia has a rich history of the Bukharan Jews, it is dearly saddening that due to certain events this opus of culture has been washed away. An ever yet so disheartening fact is the clear evidence that none of these nations are trying to rebuild and restore their Jewish relations. There are only a handful of Bukharan Jews left in Central Asia and none of their home states are concerned with them. From 2006-2009 there was not even a single synagogue in all of Tajikistan, a nation the Bukharan Jews share their culture and language with. The Bukharan Jews have pushed on though and emancipated their identity through their Diaspora.

Works Cited

1. 1. Tolmas, Chana. Bukharan Jews: History, Language, Literature, Culture.. 1st. 1. Tel-Aviv: <> Publishing House, 2006. 8-11. Print.

2. 2. Tolmas, Chana. Bukharan Jews: History, Language, Literature, Culture.. 1st. 1. Tel-Aviv: <> Publishing House, 2006. 21-24. Print.

3. 3. Tolmas, Chana. Bukharan Jews: History, Language, Literature, Culture.. 1st. 1. Tel-Aviv: <> Publishing House, 2006. 47-50. Print.

4. 4. R. Benyaminov, Dr. Meyer. Bukharian Jews. 1st. 1. New York: Gross Bros. Printing Co., 1992. 119. Print.

5. 5. R. Benyaminov, Dr. Meyer. Bukharian Jews. 1st. 1. New York: Gross Bros. Printing Co., 1992. 119. Print.

6. 6. R. Benyaminov, Dr. Meyer. Bukharian Jews. 1st. 1. New York: Gross Bros. Printing Co., 1992. 120. Print.

7. 7. R. Benyaminov, Dr. Meyer. Bukharian Jews. 1st. 1. New York: Gross Bros. Printing Co., 1992. 121. Print.

8. 8. http://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/mk_eng.asp?mk_individual_id_t=793

9. 9. Wiesbaden, Dr. Ludwig. Bukharan Jews in the 20th Century: History, Experience, and Narration.. 1st. 1. Germany: Die Deutsche Bibliothek, 2008. 113. Print.

10.10. http://www.boojle.com/?p=chametz

11.11. http://english.forseti.is/TheFirstLady/DorritMoussaieff/

#10

"From now on it is only through a conscious choice and through a deliberate policy that humanity can survive."

- Pope John Paul II

As we have seen throughout this course, the Silk Road is definitely ripe with culture and religious tradition. From antiquity to the present day, Central Asia has been glistening with religious trend. From the early days of Buddhism to the common era of Islam, this region has seen many beliefs come and pass. One such example would be Judaism. When one imagines a Jewish destination they tend to rely with Europe, North America, and the Middle East. However, this is not certainly always the case as evidence proves that there has been a Jewish community on the Silk Road for thousands of years. Minorities for sure, but nonetheless they have been present.

When discussing Central Asian Jewry one usually divides these many different peoples into 3 groups. Bukharan Jews, Kaifeng Jews, and the rest. Of the Jews in the area, the majority of them fell under two distinct ethnic groups. What we are left with though, are small groups of Jews that fall into neither of these categories. These lonesome Jews could be attested as being differing Ashkenazi or Sephardi settlers, who by coincidence found themselves to be living in such an unnatural environment. Now let us discuss the 2 thriving Jewish Central Asian identities.

Of the two, the Bukharan Jews are understood as the more genuine and historic population. Tradition suggests that these Jews are the ancestors of those who escaped Babylonian Captivity in the 5th-6th century BCE, and made this their home. They get their name from the Emirate of Bukhara which used to be a Central Asian Emirate before Russian colonization shaped the region into the modern nation states we are used to today. Bukhara is, of course, the present day capital of Uzbekistan so we can correlate that the home of the Bukharan Jews is Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.

These Jews are ethnically Tajik thus being Iranian and related to other Persian peoples. They speak a hybrid language of Farsi mixed with Hebrew and have historically lived in their own segregated communities. On the topic of history we can mention that their history has always been rather sad as Jews in a predominately Muslim area. They were always dhimmis and therefore required to pay a tax for being different, in earlier times they were even expected to wear certain clothes to label them as Jews in public.

With the dawning of the USSR their conditions rose as Russian policy leaned towards Atheism. To be honest though, ever since the dawning of modern times and globalization almost all of these Jews have found ways to emigrate from this region to more accepting destinations like Israel, U.S.A., and Europe. There are maybe around 150,000 Bukharan Jews in the world and statistics assume that about 100,000 of these are in Israel, 40,000 in America, 10,000 in the EU, and lastly maybe only a couple hundred left in Central Asia.

The Kaifeng Jews are a different story. These Jews are an extremely much smaller population, of only about 1,000 in total, in a much larger environment, that being the PRC. They have lived in the Chinese city of Kaifeng from at the very least the time of the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127), as records suggest. Interestingly enough, it is reported that a Jewish community entered this region at about this time from Bukhara. So, Kaifeng Jews are the descendants of Bukharan Jews.

Jews they may be, but the Kaifeng Jews have assimilated heavily into Han society. Even genetically they look precisely the same as all other Han and very non-Jewish. Historically this cultural adaptability has allowed them to be treated ethically by their government. Back in the day these Jews were much better off than pretty much anywhere else in the world.

Contemporary and antique scholarly work on the Kaifeng Jews is actually rather engaging as it is entertaining to read about Jews from a Chinese perspective, something hardly known about in this part of the world. To add to their uniqueness and wonder, a few scholars have recently criticized their validity as a true Jewish group by stating that their practices are not in accordance with standard Jewish rituals. Ironically though, we have lately seen a rebirth of Kaifeng Jewry and only about half of them have emigrated to Israel.

All in all, criticisms aside, here we have two unique and beautiful groups of Jews in the most unlikely place in the world. Their teachings and practices have been cut-off from the rest of the Jewish world for thousands of years but they have still been able to preserve their beliefs, some better than others. Some might argue and contest that they are not true Jews, or real Jews, but all we need to realize is that as long as they profess Judaism wholeheartedly they are Jews, regardless of ancestry.

#9

"In such a world of conflict, a world of victims and executioners, it is the job of thinking people, not to be on the side of the executioners."

- Albert Camus

What exactly does the term 'The Great Game' refer to? Well, it basically refers to two periods of British-Russian competition over the occupation of the greater Central Asia. Historically speaking the first of these periods was larger, both time wise and significance from a scholarly stand point. The term 'Great Game' was coined itself by popular British spy Arthur Conolly sometime during the early 1800s.

The first segment of the Great Game took place for roughly a hundred years from the early 19th century to the early 20th century. At the time Britain had a strong presence in the nearby territories due to the British East India Trading company, largely in India. Central Asia itself was constructed far differently than how it is today. Instead of 5 large nations, there were many smaller self-governing Emirates.

Russia saw these people, rich in their natural goods, as an easy profit. We give them civilization, they trade with us. Slowly but surely Russian influence was spreading and some of the locals even accepted it, others however put up a fight. The Brits naturally saw this as a threat to their empire so something was going to have to be done.

What came out of this? Harsh British resentment in the region, Russian puppet states in areas such as Afghanistan, and two Anglo-Afghan wars. As World War I approached though and German domination in the near Middle East was looming, the two enemies put their differences aside in order to fend off what was perceived to be a greater enemy. A peace treaty was signed and the Great Game was finished.

Or at least temporarily. In 1917 something groundbreaking occured which not only changed the fate of the world but also the Great Game's. When the Soviet's disbanded the Russian hierarchy and took control of the nation, many allegiances the nation held with other states were broken. This included Great Britain.

As a result the past armistice was broken and tensions once again arose, the game was in play again but this time for a slightly shorter amount of time. This time around many things changed but some stayed the same, Afghanistan was once again a major battle front even providing the setting for the third installment of an Anglo-Afghan war, this time with a more favorable result for the British.

Things ended here the same way they did the first time around. In the late 1930s Germany's power in the region was growing and with a second World War in everyone's nightmares, certain enemies were made friends with the flick of a pen. The Great Game hasn't been played in many years, but who knows maybe it shall re-occur.

Some say it has, but the rules have changed. It is no longer strictly a British-Russian feud, but both sides are still present. N.A.T.O. led by the U.S. is in quite the silent battle against the Russian-Chinese dominated Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). What's at stake? Oil pipelines. This modern day issue may not necessarily mirror the historic Great Game, but it surely goes to show that Central Asia has always been quite the commodity for the global powers.

#8

"I am totally against the idea that a Muslim woman should not have the same opportunities as a Muslim man to learn, to open up, to work, help shape the future. To close Islam down to a sexist approach is totally intolerable and ridiculous. It's not Islam."

-King Hussein I

For us as Canadians, modernity and Islam seem to be always clashing. The September 11th terrorist attacks on the U.S.A.proved to be the major catalyst for this apprehension as before that date much of the western world were rather ignorant towards this religious faith.

With the ever present and continued rise of America's war with Muslim extremists in the East, Islam's image has only been getting more negative. Common attitudes and beliefs of Americans hold that Islam is a violent and backwards religion. Granted, this is not as true as it used to be as people are beginning to educate themselves.

All of this hostility towards the worlds seconds most numerous faith, behind Christianity, would be completely preposterous if one were to examine the faith from an external lens, unaffected by society. Islam's tenets and practices make it one of the most peaceful religions as a matter of fact.

Modern statistics show that Islam is the fastest growing religion in the United States, and as we have seen on many Youtube videos, many non-Muslim background Americans are converting to the religion. Now why would this be if the faith is so anti-American? Reports believe that within around the next 10-20 years, Islam will surpass Christianity as the world's most popular religion.

Islam is very similar to Christianity and Judaism, as it evolved from these two previous faiths. So why the hostility? I do not need to go into the precepts or pillars of Muslim belief, as I'm sure many of us know them by now, and I believe that with regards to Islam's worthiness, the prior statistics stand out as markers.

Overall simply due to War and problems with civilian interaction, be it over goods such as oil or military action, Islam has attained an extremely negative image for such a popular religion. These are all outside of the religion itself and therefore should not be used to describe it at all. Thankfully people in the West are becoming less ignorant and correcting the misconceptions of their fathers.

#7

"America and Islam are not exclusive and need not be in competition. Instead, they overlap, and share common principles of justice and progress, tolerance and the dignity of all human beings."

-Barack Obama

When faced with the topic of the global spread of Islam, one immediately may conjure up beliefs of war and forced conversions. Now it may be true to a certain extent that Islam was spread martially with the rise of certain empires, but this is not true for the entire sphere of Muslim thought. In many regions, China being one, Islam was spread through knowledge and peaceful trade.

If we look at modern China we will notice that the majority of Chinese Muslims (the Uyghur & Hui) live in the western and northwestern parts of the country, particularly Xinjiang. What does this imply about the history of Islam in China? Surely it must imply that Islam was introduced to the country by the merchants and missionaries traveling from Central Asia.

It is a Chinese Muslim legend that Islam was first introduced to China as early as 650 C.E. when the uncle of the prophet Muhammad sent an official envoy to the Chinese Emperor. Now the validity of this statement will forever be uncertain due to a lack of evidence. It is unfortunate that the early Chinese were so negative of foreigners as now we are left with hardly any information on Islam in China before the 17th century.

Of the information we are left with we can notice that it was not always very easy for Muslims to mix into regular society. At first they were segregated in their own port towns. At first they were not culturally assimilated either maintaining Arabic and Persian as vernacular. The Mongol founded Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) saw them gain more freedom and power. The Mongols even went as far as giving them elevated status over the ethnic Han majority. Finally Chinese Muslims could work for the government and gain higher incomes.

It now would appear that this Chinese minority was finally assimilating culturally into society, by adopting Chinese dialects and names, but just as the kinship of China was regularly changing, so were Chinese-Muslim relations. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) Muslims were faced with many problems. Many of their cultural and religious practices were outlawed such as their ritual animal slaughter and pilgrimage to Mecca.

This oppressive rule was put to an end after the fall of the Qing Dynasty by Sun Yat Sen, but just as soon as things were looking to clear up, the Communist Cultural Revolution occured and Muslims were once again targets of abuse. Mosques were destroyed and citizens murdered. As we move to our modern time we can notice that since the 80s the Communist government has relaxed its policies towards the Muslims and there is a Islamic revival taking place.

As with other regions of recent Islamic upsurge, many wrongful actors present themselves such as terrorist organizations promoting war and separatism. Some of this is occuring currently in Xinjiang by the purpotrators of the alleged East Turkestan independance movement. Calls for the Muslim-majority areas of Xinjiang to be allowed sovereignty from the rest of the nation have caused ethnic tensions in the region.

Though at times sad, the Islamic history of China is very diverse and expansive. When referring to Global Islamic history in general, one can notice that China is in fact one of its largest contributors. Though only 1-2% of the national population, there are around 20 million Muslims in China, making it one of the top 20 nations with the highest populations of Muslims. Islam is constantly growing in China and its future seems bright.

Manichaeism

The religious tradition entitled Manichaeism was developed and started in the Sassanid (Persian) Empire. Its founder was a man named Mani who lived from 216-276 CE and was born in Babylon, or the area located around present day Al-Hillah, Iraq. This gnostic faith of his spread quickly and from the third to the seventh century, it was just as popular as its rival faiths of Buddhism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism.

During the time of its highest popularity, Manichaeism could be found all the way from the Roman Empire to Southern China. The prophet Mani himself outlined all of his faith's teachings in seven or eight books, all of which he wrote himself. Unfortunately, transcripts of these have been lost through history and now only small fragments of some translations remain. The largest database of information that we have on Mani/Manichaeism is the Cologne Mani-Codex.

This is basically a papyrus codex which can be traced back to the fifth century CE and it holds a hagiography on Mani himself, allowing us to know much about him we would not have been able to before. The main beliefs of Manichaeism are largely dualistic, there is no omnipotent higher good (or, God) but instead we have two opposing forces. One of good, and one of evil. The struggle of light and dark is important; our souls are said to be of light while the earth of dark.

The emergence of such a faith amidst many others leads to many instances. At the one end of the spectrum they clash, and we see this as history shows us Buddhist, Christian, Islamic, and Zoroastrian societies all persecuted followers of Manichaeism. On the other side of the spectrum, we ask how did this religion evolve with its rivals, and was there any syncretism involved. The answer to this is yes.

If you study its history you will agree. As the faith moved from its origin it adopted different deities influenced from other faiths, and as its work was translated into neighboring languages of Persian and Chinese, many of the names and principles were translated in order to fit with similar Zoroastrian and Buddhist ideals. So yes Manichaeism is synretic, but what does this mean?

For one thing, for a religion to be syncretic should not be frowned upon. Now yes that is not easy to tell people of the so called 'revealed' faiths such as Christianity and Islam, but it is a reality that should be noted. There are arguments and evidence, albeit limited in some cases, which prove that basically all modern day world religions are partly if not largely syncretic. So for the sake of Manichaeism in our discussion, we can say it progressed normally.

All religions are syncretic. Christianity was influenced by Paganism and Zoroastrianism. Islam was influenced by Judaism and Christianity. Buddhism was influenced by Hinduism. All of these statements are not entirely true, but are not entirely false. There is even evidence out there today that Judaism was influenced by the Paganism of ancient Egypt. In the Roman Empire such syncretism was completely normal as new deities were added to existing pantheons routinely.

Now with all of this syncretic talk feelings can be easily hurt and individuals can become angry, rightfully so too as such talk can seem blasphemous. What we need to do is realize that such scholarly pursuits do not have demeaning intentions and the results found do not falsify certain religions. Now this is of course a sore subject and it is not as easy as it sounds. All in all we can see that Manichaeism was largely syncretic and this resulted in its success.

#6

"Each eye can have its vision separately; but when we are looking at anything... our vision, which in itself is divided, joins up and unites in order to give itself as a whole to the object that is put before it."

-John Calvin

I love to look back on past civilizations (the older the better) and examine them both in the context of their own time and in the context of mine. So, whenever my scholarly aides allow me to do so, I never hesitate. For this reading we took a look at society in Chang'an during the Tang Dynasty, with a concentration on the population of Nestorian Christians in the area and their roles as a religious minority.

All in all it was very interesting indeed to see what life was like to have been a member of this ancient society. Many aspects I am very understanding about, such as the cultural aspects of family and honor. However, some of the information caught me off surprise, I never imagined that security would have been so tight back then, in as far as imposing harsh daily curfews. Pondering back on it now though, I can understand the reasoning for it.

Another bit of information which struck my eye, and was particularly appealing for me, was the economy of Chang'an. Wholly based off the trade of goods, which most came from along the silk road, the economy was nothing compared to what we live with nowadays but it is important to notice how vital a part of every citizens life the market economy was. I found it neat that when there were no coins left to use as currency the citizens would use pieces of silk.

The reading for me however peaked when i read the fantastic little short story encountered in Hansen's reading. Entitled The Tale of Li Wa it is a fascinating story as it gives the reader a first hand observation of daily life in Chang'an. Prose speaks to the mind and imagination much clearer than historical fact ever can, even if it may be fictitious. The story follows a young man on his path of education as he struggles for love and struggles with his social class.

With regards to Nestorian Christianity, this was also an interesting part of the reading. Their history is very unique as they have been extremely isolated from the rest of Christendom. This can be noticed in their different beliefs, rejection of the trinity, and their rituals/practices. It was nice to find out that the Nestorians were particularly safe living in Chang'an, as opposed to the numerous Christians being persecuted during the same time in the nearby Roman Empire.